Ladak formerly was part of Great Thibet, The powerful invading forces
from the north which traversed the country to conquer Kachmyr, and the wars
of which Ladak was the theatre, not only reduced it to misery, but
eventually subtracted it from the political domination of Lhassa, and made
it the prey of one conqueror after another. The Musselmen, who sized
Kachmyr and Ladak at a remote epoch, converted by force the poor
inhabitants of old Thibet to the faith of Islam. The political existence of
Ladak ended with the annexation of this country to Kachmyr by the sëiks,
which, however, permitted the Ladakians to return to their ancient beliefs.
Two-thirds of the inhabitants took advantage of this opportunity to rebuild
their gonpas and take up their past life anew. Only the Baltistans remained
Musselman schüttes--a sect to which the conquerors of the country had
belonged. They, however, have only conserved a vague shadow of Islamism,
the character of which manifests itself in their ceremonials and in the
polygamy which they practice. Some lamas affirmed to me that they did not
despair of one day bringing them back to the faith of their ancestors.
From the religious point of view Ladak is a dependency of Lhassa, the
capital of Thibet and the place of residence of the Dalai-Lama. In Lhassa
are located the principal Khoutoukhtes, or Supreme Lamas, and the Chogzots,
or administrators. Politically, it is under the authority of the Maharadja
of Kachmyr, who is represented there by a governor.
The inhabitants of Ladak belong to the Chinese-Touranian race, and are
divided into Ladakians and Tchampas. The former lead a sedentary existence,
building villages of two-story houses along the narrow valleys, are cleanly
in their habits, and cultivators of the soil. They are excessively ugly;
thin, with stooping figures and small heads set deep between their
shoulders; their cheek bones salient, foreheads narrow, eyes black and
brilliant, as are those of all the Mongol race; noses flat, mouths large
and thin-lipped; and from their small chins, very thinly garnished by a few
hairs, deep wrinkles extend upward furrowing their hollow cheeks. To all
this, add a close-shaven head with only a little bristling fringe of hair,
and you will have the general type, not alone of Ladak, but of entire
Thibet.
The women are also of small stature, and have exceedingly prominent
cheek bones, but seem to be of much more robust constitution. A healthy red
tinges their cheeks and sympathetic smiles linger upon their lips. They
have good dispositions, joyous inclinations, and are fond of laughing.
The severity of the climate and rudeness of the country, do not permit
to the Ladakians much latitude in quality and colors of costume. They wear
gowns of simple gray linen and coarse dull-hued clothing of their own
manufacture. The pantaloons of the men only descend to their knees. People
in good circumstances wear, in addition to the ordinary dress, the "choga,"
a sort of overcoat which is draped on the back when not wrapped around the
figure. In winter they wear fur caps, with big ear flips, and in summer
cover their heads with a sort of cloth hood, the top of which dangles on
one side, like a Phrygian cap. Their shoes are made of felt and covered
with leather. A whole arsenal of little things hangs down from their belts,
among which you will find a needle case, a knife, a pen and inkstand, a
tobacco pouch, a pipe, and a diminutive specimen of the omnipresent
prayer-cylinder.
The Thibetan men are generally so lazy, that if a braid of hair happens
to become loose, it is not tressed up again for three months, and when once
a shirt is put on the body, it is not again taken off until it falls to
pieces. Their overcoats are always unclean, and, on the back, one may
contemplate a long oily stripe imprinted by the braid of hair, which is
carefully greased every day. They wash themselves once a year, but even
then do not do so voluntarily, but because compelled by law. They emit such
a terrible stench that one avoids, as much as possible, being near them.
The Thibetan women, on the contrary, are very fond of cleanliness and
order. They wash themselves daily and as often as may be needful. Short and
clean chemises hide their dazzling white necks. The Thibetan woman throws
on her round shoulders a red jacket, the flaps of which are covered by
tight pantaloons of green or red cloth, made in such a manner as to puff up
and so protect the legs against the cold. She wears embroidered red
half-boots, trimmed and lined with fur. A large cloth petticoat with
numerous folds completes her home toilet. Her hair is arranged in thin
braids, to which, by means of pins, a large piece of floating cloth is
attached,--which reminds one of the headdress so common in Italy.
Underneath this sort of veil are suspended a variety of various colored
pebbles, coins and pieces of metal. The ears are covered by flaps made of
cloth or fur. A furred sheepskin covers the back, poor women contenting
themselves with a simple plain skin of the animal, while wealthy ladies
wear veritable cloaks, lined with red cloth and adorned with gold fringes.
The Ladak woman, whether walking in the streets or visiting her
neighbors, always carries upon her back a conical basket, the smaller end
of which is toward the ground. They fill it with the dung of horses or
cows, which constitute the combustible of the count try. Every woman has
money of her own, and spends it for jewelry. Generally she purchases, at a
small expense, large pieces of turquoise, which are added to the bizarre
ornaments of her headdress. I have seen pieces so worn which weighed nearly
five pounds. The Ladak woman occupies a social position for which she is
envied by all women of the Orient. She is free and respected. With the
exception of some rural work, she passes the greatest part of her time in
visiting. It must, however, be added that women's gossip is here a
perfectly unknown thing.
The settled population of Ladak is engaged in agriculture, but they own
so little land (the share of each may amount to about eight acres) that the
revenue drawn from it is insufficient to provide them with the barest
necessities and does not permit them to pay taxes. Manual occupations are
generally despised. Artisans and musicians form the lowest class of
society. The name by which they are designated is Bem, and people are very
careful not to contract any alliance with them. The hours of leisure left
by rural work are spent in hunting the wild sheep of Thibet, the skins of
which are highly valued in India. The poorest, i.e., those who have
not the means to purchase arms for hunting, hire themselves as coolies.
This is also an occupation of women, who are very capable of enduring
arduous toil. They are healthier than their husbands, whose laziness goes
so far that, careless of cold or heat, they are capable of spending a whole
night in the open air on a bed of stones rather than take the trouble to go
to bed.
Polyandry (which I shall treat later more fully) causes the formation of
very large families, who, in common, cultivate their jointly possessed
lands, with the assistance of yaks, zos and zomos (oxen and cows). A member
of a family cannot detach himself from it, and when he dies, his share
reverts to the survivors in common.
They sow but little wheat and the grain is very small, owing to the
severity of the climate. They also harvest barley, which they pulverize
before selling. When work in the field is ended, all male inhabitants go to
gather on the mountain a wild herb called "enoriota," and large
thorn bushes or "dama," which are used as fuel, since
combustibles are scarce in Ladak. You see there neither trees nor gardens,
and only exceptionally thin clumps of willows and poplars u grow on the
shores of the rivers. Near the villages are also found some aspen trees;
but, on account of the unfertility of the ground, arboriculture is unknown
and gardening is little successful.
The absence of wood is especially noticeable in the buildings, which are
made of sun-dried bricks, or, more frequently, of stones of medium size
which are agglomerated with a kind of mortar composed of clay and chopped
straw. The houses of the settled inhabitants are two stories high, their
fronts whitewashed, and their window-sashes painted with lively colors. The
flat roof forms a terrace which is decorated with wild flowers, and here,
during good weather, the inhabit, ants spend much of their time
contemplating nature, or turning their prayer-wheels. Every dwelling-house
is composed of many rooms; among them always one of superior size, the
walls of which are decorated with superb fur-skins, and which is reserved
for visitors. In the other rooms are beds and other furniture. Rich people
possess, moreover, a special room filled with all kinds of idols, and set
apart as a place of worship.
Life here is very regular. They eat anything attainable, without much
choice; the principal nourishment of the Ladak people, however, being
exceedingly simple. Their breakfast consists of a piece of rye bread. At
dinner, they serve on the table a bowl with meal into which lukewarm water
is stirred with little rods until the mixture assumes the consistency of
thick paste. From this, small portions are scooped out and eaten with milk.
In the evening, bread and tea are served. Meat is a superfluous luxury.
Only the hunters introduce some variety in their alimentation, by eating
the meat of wild sheep, eagles or pheasants, which are very common in this
country.
During the day, on every excuse and opportunity, they drink "tchang,"
a kind of pale, unfermented beer.
If it happens that a Ladakian, mounted on a pony (such privileged people
are very rare), goes to seek work in the surrounding country, he provides
himself with a small stock of meal; when dinner time comes, he descends to
a river or spring, mixes with water, in a wooden cup that he always has
with him, some of the meal, swallows the simple refreshment and washes it
down with water.
The Tchampas, or nomads, who constitute the other part of Ladak's
population, are rougher, and much poorer than the settled population. They
are, for the most part, hunters, who completely neglect agriculture.
Although they profess the Buddhistic religion, they never frequent the
cloisters unless in want of meal, which they obtain in exchange for their
venison. They mostly camp in tents on the summits of the mountains, where
the cold is very great. While the properly called Ladakians are peaceable,
very desirous of learning, of an incarnated laziness, and are never known
to tell untruth; the Tchampas, on the contrary, are very irascible,
extremely lively, great liars and profess a great disdain for the convents.
Among them lives the small population of Khombas, wanderers from the
vicinity of Lhassa, who lead the miserable existence of a troupe of begging
gipsies on the highways. Incapable of any work whatever, speaking a
language not spoken in the country where they beg for their subsistence,
they are the objects of general contempt, and are only tolerated out of
pity for their deplorable condition, when hunger drives their mendicant
bands to seek alms in the villages.
Polyandry, which is universally prevalent here, of course
interested my curiosity. This institution is, by the way, not the outcome
of Buddha's doctrines. Polyandry existed long before the advent of Buddha.
It assumed considerable proportions in India, where it constituted one of
the most effective means for checking the growth of a population which
tends to constant increase, an economic danger which is even yet combatted
by the abominable custom of killing new-born female children, which causes
terrible ravages in the child-life of India. The efforts made by the
English in their enactments against the suppression of the future mothers
have proved futile and fruitless. Manu himself established polyandry as a
law, and Buddhist preachers, who had renounced Brahminism and preached the
use of opium, imported this custom into Ceylon, Thibet, Corea, and the
country of the Moguls. For a long time suppressed in China, polyandry,
which flourishes in Thibet and Ceylon, is also met with among the Kalmonks,
between Todas in Southern India, and Nairs on the coast of Malabar. Traces
of this strange constitution of the family are also to be found with the
Tasmanians and the Irquois Indians in North America.
Polyandry, by the way, has even flourished in Europe, if we may believe
Caesar, who, in his De Bello Gallico, book V., page 17, writes:
"Uxores habent deni duodenique inter se communes, et maxime fratres
cum fratribus et parentes cum liberis."
In view of all this it is impossible to hold any religion responsible
for the existence of the institution of polyandry. In Thibet it can be
explained by motives of an economical nature; the small quantity of arable
land falling to the share of each inhabitant. In order to support the
1,500,000 inhabitants distributed in Thibet, upon a surface of 1,200,000
square kilometres, the Buddhists were forced to adopt polyandry. Moreover,
each family is bound to enter one of its members in a religious order. The
first-born is consecrated to a gonpa, which is inevitably found upon an
elevation, at the entrance of every village. As soon as the child attains
the age of eighteen years, he is entrusted to the caravans which pass
Lhassa, where he remains from eight to fifteen years as a novice, in one of
the gonpas which are near the city. There he learns to read and write, is
taught the religious rites and studies the sacred parchments written in the
Pali language--which formerly used to be the language of the country of
Maguada, where, according to tradition, Buddha was born.
The oldest brother remaining in a family chooses a wife, who becomes
common to his brothers. The choice of the bride and the nuptial ceremonies
are most rudimentary. When a wife and her husband have decided upon the
marriage of a son, the brother who possesses the right of choice, pays a
visit to a neighboring family in which there is a marriageable daughter.
The first and second visits are spent in more or less indifferent
conversations, blended with frequent libations of tchang, and on the third
visit only does the young man declare his intention to take a wife. Upon
this the girl is formally introduced to him. She is generally not unknown
to the wooer, as, in Ladak, women never veil their faces.
A girl cannot be married without her consent. When the young man is
accepted, he takes his bride to his house, and she becomes his wife and
also the wife of all his brothers. A family which has an only son sends him
to a woman who has no more than two or three husbands, and he offers
himself to her as a fourth husband. Such an offer is seldom declined, and
the young man settles in the new family.
The newly married remain with the parents of the husbands, until the
young wife bears her first child. The day after that event, the
grandparents of the infant make over the bulk of their fortune to the new
family, and, abandoning the old home to them, seek other shelter.
Sometimes marriages are contracted between youth who have not reached a
marriageable age, but in such event, the married couple are made to live
apart, until they have attained and even passed the age required. An
unmarried girl who becomes enceinte, far from being exposed to the
scorn of every one, is shown the highest respect; for she is demonstrated
fruitful, and men eagerly seek her in marriage. A wife has the unquestioned
right of having an unlimited number of husbands and lovers. If she likes a
young man, she takes him home, announces that he has been chosen by her as
a "jingtuh" (a lover), and endows him with all the personal
rights of a husband, which situation is accepted by her temporarily
supplanted husbands with a certain philosophic pleasure, which is the more
pronounced if their wife has proved sterile during the three first years of
her marriage.
They certainly have here not even a vague idea of jealousy. The
Thibetan's blood is too cold to know love, which, for him, would be almost
an anachronism; if indeed he were not conscious that the sentiment of the
entire community would be against him, as a flagrant violator of popular
usage and established rights, in restraining the freedom of the women. The
selfish enjoyment of love would be, in their eyes, an unjustifiable luxury.
In case of a husband's absence, his place may be offered to a bachelor
or a widower. The latter are here in the minority, since the wife generally
survives her feeble husbands. Sometimes a Buddhist traveller, whom his
affairs bring to the village, is chosen for this office. A husband who
travels, or seeks for work in the neighboring country, at every stop takes
advantage of his co-religionists' hospitality, who offer him their own
wives. The husbands of a sterile woman exert themselves to find
opportunities for hospitality, which may happily eventuate in a change in
her condition, that they may be made happy fathers.
The wife enjoys the general esteem, is ever of a cheerful disposition,
takes part in everything that is going on, goes and comes without any
restriction, anywhere and everywhere she pleases, with the exception of the
principal prayer-room of the monastery, entrance into which is formally
prohibited to her.
Children know only their mother, and do not feel the least affection for
their fathers, for the simple reason that they have so many. Without
approving polyandry, I could not well blame Thibet for this institution,
since without it, the population would prodigiously increase. Famine and
misery would fall upon the whole nation, with all the sinister sequellæ
of murder and theft, crimes so far absolutely unknown in the whole country.
Next: A Festival in a Gonpa
